Language and Communication in Psychology - 2786 Words

Through detailed consideration of one selected area of investigation evaluate the progress made by researchers in developing explanations of key aspects of the psychology of language and communication. The study of language is frequently debated in different theories of human nature. The importance of language is relevant when it to comes to the work of philosophers, neuroscientist, humanist and psychologist. Language has been applicable to Aristotle, Plato, Hume, Locke, Freud and Skinner. This essay seeks in investigating the definition of language and communication. In doing so traditional language theories will be assessed, this will later be compared to modern progression by researchers in developing explanations of the psychology of†¦show more content†¦Shallice, (1988) have suggested that cognitive neuropsychological data are too â€Å"noisy† and there difficult in being used further than exploring the brains functional architecture. Others such as McCloskey Caramazza, (1991) have argued against this point. Stating that there shouldn’t be a restriction on what data produced cognitive theory at ‘any arbitrary level of detail’. Thirdly, It was not until the mid twentieth century that there was a â€Å"Cognitive revolution† with the work of Broadbent (1956), Chomsky, (1959) Miller, Galanter, Pribram,(1960), also study from Marshall and Newcombe (1966, 1973) looking into cognitive neuropsychology of reading and from Shallice and Warrington (1970) memory. This also included the work into the development of researching sentence processing in aphasia, where linguistic and psycholinguistic theory were responsible for the analysis of aphasic symptoms (Caramazza Zurif, 1976 ; Marin, Saffran, Schwartz, 1976). A substantial amount of evidence afterwards has been produced in showing modularity in the brain. This shows that even though language is specifically located in the brain it is split into separate stages that may selectively be disrupted. (Berndt, Basili and Caramazza 1987) it is therefore established that specific lesions (in specific parts of the brain dedicated to language) will not affect the entire language process. This mightShow MoreRelatedLanguage and Lexicon Paper1061 Words   |  5 PagesLanguage and Lexicon Paper PSY 360 August 13, 2012 Introduction Language as we know it is very hard to define because it is the linguistics of the language, but we know it is important for our life. It is very important tool to express my feeling and opinion, and we could know what others think about. As a result, we could make connection with others. However, have you ever thought why we can communicate each other? Do you know why human’s communication is defined as language and other animal’sRead MoreEvolution of Cognitive Psychology1105 Words   |  5 PagesRunning head: EVOLUTION OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PAPER Evolution of Cognitive Psychology PSYCH 560 Latrice T. Colbert Julie Bruno, Psy.D September 6, 2010 Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension, including thinking, knowing, remembering, judging and problem-solving. Not only is cognitive psychology central to everything a person does in his or her everyday life, it is also central to psychology’s quest to understand how peopleRead MorePsy 360 Language Essay1417 Words   |  6 PagesLanguage Essay Ryan Butler Psychology 360 August 29, 2011 Professor Newlin LANGUAGE Have you ever wondered how we speak? How about why our communication is considered a language and other animal’s communication is not considered language? A wide range of beliefs exist on what defines language. Thus, by exploring the definition of language and lexicon, evaluating language’s key features, the four levels of language structure and processing, and the role of language in Cognitive PsychologyRead MoreAbnormal Behavior As Its Own Discourse Community1345 Words   |  6 Pagesfully understand Psychology as a discourse community, I have decided to research the Abnormal behavior branch; which is a study in the psychology field. I will then correlate that information to that of the psychology discourse community. Which will allow me to not only evaluate the Abnormal behavior branch, using both Swales and Pratt’s texts. Finally, I will most likely come to the conclusion based on my research, that while the Abnormal behavior study is part on the psychol ogy discourse communityRead MoreLanguage and Lexicon1352 Words   |  5 Pages Language Lexicon The author of this paper is asked to cover four major questions. First, the author is asked to define language and lexicon. Second, the author is asked to define the key features of language. Third, the author is asked to describe the four levels of language structure and processing. Finally, the author is asked to analyze the role of language processing in cognitive psychology (Stanford, 2013)(Answers, 2013). Define Language Lexicon Language and lexicon are similarRead MoreChild Abuse and Cognitive Psychology1478 Words   |  6 PagesChild Abuse and Cognitive Psychology Language is an important component in discussing cognitive psychology. There are many different aspects to language that can be broken down to better understand its functions. Language can be defined as â€Å"An organized way to combine words to communicate† (O’Brien, lecture notes 2014). In addition language is a communication system that is unique to humans. It is also something that is learned as opposed to being biologically inherited (O’Brien, lecture notes,Read MoreLanguage Paper1243 Words   |  5 PagesLanguage Paper PSY 360 Language Paper Language is something that generally every human has as a form of communication. It can be in the form of verbal words, in the form of written words, or even in the form of signed words, but it is something that as humans we all use in one way or another. The need for language evolved as a way for people to express their thoughts, their feelings and emotions, and even their fears. Humans needed a way to communicate with each other to express thingsRead MoreThe Career Path Of Attending College1656 Words   |  7 Pageschallenge, as stated before, will be in dealing with other people, whether it be subordinates, peers, or supervisors. Psychology will help in the understanding of myself and others and can help me be more productive in the workplace. The first career path that I chose to take was to be a soldier, but now I will embark on a different path, that of an educational psychologist. Studying psychology will help me to understand the complex mental processes that students have with their learning disabilities. IRead MoreNon-Verbal Communication and Inter-Cultural Communication Essay1249 Words   |  5 Pages Nonverbal communication is defined as the approach of conveying information and data by using speech, visuals, signs , behavior etc. Approximately 65% of the communication takes place through nonverbal attributes. Generally communication takes place with three steps. FIRST Is the thought or idea that comes in the mind of the sender. SECOND is the encoding which means sending message to the receiver in a particular gesture or sign or via a particular medium. THIRD is decoding of message which meansRead MoreThe role of Non Verbal Communication in the Facilitation of Social Interaction1496 Words   |  6 Pages1999). Communication is a dynamic process with the interacting components of sending and receiving information. Nonverbal cues may provide clarity or contradiction for a message being sent (Dunn, 1998). This is not to say that nonverbal forms of communication merely provide a modem of clarity for verbal communication, they can, and do, stand alone (Krauss et al, 1995). Facial exp ressions, body movements, gaze and posture can all be used to provide further emphasis to language communication or can

Fool For Love Essay - 1601 Words

DRAM 284-King Final Essay Cierra â€Å"CB† Cotton PID: 720209797 On my honor, I have neither given nor received unauthorized aid on this examination. Essay Prompt: Do you prefer social drama, family drama, or alternative drama? Give an example of the genre you prefer and explain why that genre has contributed so much to twentieth and twenty-first century culture. Of the various and abundant facets of theatrical productions and genres; one could assert that family drama has been a crucial catalyst to the growth and change of the social structure in†¦show more content†¦It is quickly revealed, that in reality, her daily harpings and impossible expectations have severed her children’s trust and love for her. We know this because Tom retreats to the movies and Laura to her glass menagerie. This is exemplified in the last scene as follows. Amanda: (to Tom) where are you going? Tom: I’m going to the movies. Amanda: That’s right, now that you’ve had us make such fools of ourselves. The effort, the preparations, all the expense! The new floor lam, the rug, the clothes for Laura! All for what? To entertain some other girl’s fiancà ©! Go to the moves, go! Don’t think about us, a mother deserted, an unmarried sister, whose crippled and has no job! Don’t think about us, a mother deserted, an unmarried sister who’s crippled and has no job! Don’t let anything interfere with your selfish pleasure! Just go, go,Show MoreRelatedEssay on Fool for Love by Sam Sheppard595 Words   |  3 PagesIn the play of Fool for Love the director showed some major themes very well. The first major theme that was shown was how they showed the old man throughout the play. They showed the old man sitting a little bit off the stage in the dark. This gave people the idea that he was d ied and was a voice in Eddie’s and May’s mind. When the old man did talk they would put the spot light on him. Another major theme they showed well was how May felt when Eddie just appeared in her life again. They showed howRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s A Midsummer Night s Dream And Fool1401 Words   |  6 PagesThe Shakespearean fool is a recurring character type in the works of William Shakespeare. While their individual personalities and functions differ from play to play, the reoccurrence of the Shakespearean fool suggests that fools serve as an important institution of the Shakespearean stage. But what is the role of the Shakespeare’s fools in his works? And how do particular characteristics about these fools help them achieve this purpose? Through an in-depth analysis of Shakespeare’s arguably twoRead MoreBrilliant Folly: the Role of Feste1120 Words   |  5 PagesIn William Shakespeare s comedy Twelfth Night, it is ironic how many times the fool is said to be dishonest, when, in fact, his role proves entirely opposite. Though sometimes the characters do not realize his hidden messages, the reader can instantly comprehend Feste s figurative language, which is evident in every scene in which the fool appears. Whether he is singing to Orsino, arguing with Malvolio, or playing around with Viola, Feste always manages to sneak in a few symbolic foretokens beforeRead More Feste in William Shakespeares Twelfth Night Essay1077 Words   |  5 PagesWilliam Shakespeares Twelfth Night In William Shakespeares comedy Twelfth Night, it is ironic how many times the fool is said to be dishonest, when, in fact, his role proves entirely opposite. Though sometimes the characters do not realize his hidden messages, the reader can instantly comprehend Festes figurative language, which is evident in every scene in which the fool appears. Whether he is singing to Orsino, arguing with Malvolio, or playing around with Viola, Feste always manages toRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s King Lear1059 Words   |  5 Pagesback as king. Gender Roles are overturned when the three daughters became independent; they were in control of the kingdom and their husbands. Finally, the last role to be overturned is the traditional role of a fool which is supposed to be an entertainer for the king, however, the fool in King Lear became an adviser instead. The traditional noble role is usurped when Lear retires from his position as King and promotes two of his daughters to higher power which was unheard of at the time. LearRead MoreTwelfth Night Essay1134 Words   |  5 Pagespoints involving love, friendship, conflicts and confusion. Twelfth Night displays characters that are mad, in love, and desperate for love. Twelfth Night has many conflicts that occur because characters fail to listen to messages. Viola is a character who has just thought that her brother has died in a shipwreck that they were both in. Viola disguises herself as a man to seek employment under the Duke Orsino’s court. The confusion occurs, when Viola tells Orsino that she loves someone (Orsino),Read MoreThe Fools in Twelfth Night Essay1098 Words   |  5 PagesThe Fools of Twelfth Night  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   It is not unusual that the fool should be a prominent figure and make an important contribution in forming the confusion and the humor in an Elizabethan drama. In William Shakespeares comedy, Twelfth Night, Feste the clown is not the only fool who is subject to foolery. He and many other characters combine their silly acts and wits to invade other characters that either escape reality or live a dream. In Twelfth Night, Feste, Maria and Sir Toby are the foolsRead MoreThe Function of Disguise in Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare889 Words   |  4 Pagesbased around disguise and deception, both mental and physical. The deception leads to a lot of misunderstanding and subsequently, a lot of humour. The tale begins in Illyria with the Duke Orsino, who is suffering due to his unrequited love for the Lady Olivia. The Lady is also suffering from the recent loss of her brother and father, and currently wants nothing to do with the equally mournful Duke. A disguise is used for safety when a young character named Viola becomesRead More foolear A Fool for a King in William Shakespeares King Lear1081 Words   |  5 PagesA Fool for a King in King Lear     Ã‚   In Shakespeares play King Lear, the main character, King Lear, is presented as a respected and powerful king. As the story progresses the king loses his power because of his own stupidity and blindness. The tragedy of this play is shown chiefly through the actions of Lear’s daughters, which lead to Lear’s bout with insanity, and through the words of the Fool. At the beginning of the play, King Lear appears as a powerful and well-loved ruler. He explainsRead MoreEssay on A Midsummer Nights Dream: Comedy650 Words   |  3 Pagesbe the plays main fool. In addition, it is he who sends everyone on hard (but funny) adventures. Puck is a fool in the true sense of the word during the time of this play - someone that entertains for his master. It was Pucks job in this play to entertain the fairy king Oberon. I picture Puck as wearing a funny hat and pointed toe shoes. Another fool in this play would be Nick Bottom, but he is a fool in the present-day sense of the word. Bottom is not the type of fool who entertains his

Global Warming Fact or Fiction Free Essays

Global Warming: Fact or Fiction? Is global warming taking place? Are humans the cause of it? Lately these questions are being asked more and more by people who believe that the earth’s climate is growing steadily warmer at an alarming rate. Our planet’s ever-changing climate has captured the attention of those who would have us agree that without drastic modification of our behavior, we will ultimately destroy the world in which we live. However, these activists are using scare tactics based upon inadequate information acquired from unreliable sources to promote their agenda, and this theory of human-caused global warming is refuted by science and logic. We will write a custom essay sample on Global Warming: Fact or Fiction? or any similar topic only for you Order Now The popular belief that global warming is the effect of human activity is erroneous and unsupported by scientific evidence. Environmental activists believe that our burning of fossil fuels and increased output of carbon dioxide or â€Å"greenhouse† gases have aided the apparently human-provoked global warming process. However, according to the National Center for Policy Analysis, human-produced carbon dioxide could have only played a small role in this warming. H. Sterling Burnett states that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has only increased twenty-eight percent over the past 150 years, and most of this increase took place before the year 1940, which is prior to most human-emitted carbon dioxide. Burnett goes on to say that poll results show â€Å"only 17 percent of the members of the Meteorological Society and the American Geophysical Society think that the warming of the 20th century has been a result of greenhouse gas emissions. Some U. S. climatologists believe that the apparent warming trend we have been experiencing over the past few years may be in part due to improper placements of weather surface stations. These stations, sited in various locations all over the United States, serve to collect data concerning our climate. Although strict guidelines govern where these stati ons should be located, Surface Stations. org, a website dedicated to surveying the stations, shows that our nation’s surface stations are not meeting these requirements. This website displays photographs of surface stations that are positioned beside airport runways, large industrial areas, and sewage treatment plants; all of which distort temperature readings. One station in Forest Grove, Oregon, is placed directly behind an air conditioning unit, which continually blows hot air onto the surface station meter. I think everyone would agree that this causes the station’s temperature readings to increase. Laurie David, writer and global warming activist, argues that How to cite Global Warming: Fact or Fiction?, Essay examples

Phytochemical free essay sample

Phytochemical Analysis of Medicinal Plants Used for the Management of Hypertension by Esan people of Edo State, Nigeria J. K. Mensah, R I. Okoli ,1 A. A. Turay,2 and E. A. Ogie-Odia Department of Botany 1Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences Ambrose Alli University, P. M. B 14, Ekpoma, Nigeria Issued 01 October 2009 Abstract Hypertension is one of the principal health problems in the society and a leading cause of cardio-vascular deaths in various communities worldwide. Over 33 plants and their products have been reported in Nigeria and other West African countries to offer remedies for the management of hypertension. In Esanland of Edo State, Nigeria, 14 endemic plant species distributed in 12 taxonomic families have been identified by various traditional health practitioners as being effective and commonly used to manage hypertension (Psidium guajava, Piper guineense, Loranthus spectobulus, Talinum triangulare, Senna occidentalis, Rauwolfia vomitoria, Allium sativum, Allium cepa, Carica papaya, Euphorbia hirta, Ocimum gratissimum, Persea americana, Peperomia pellucida, and Vernonia amygdalina). Qualitative phytochemical analyses of the plant parts have revealed the presence of various components of medical importance including tannins, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids, saponin and inulins. Cardiac glycosides were present in all the species studied while alkaloids were present in all except A. sativum, A. cepa, O. gratissimum and P. americana. Saponnins were present in all except the seeds of negro coffee (S. accidentalis), while tannins were present in all except bulbs of garlic (A. sativum). This preliminary study draws attention to the need for further studies of the active principles identified in the reported species for the treatment of hypertension in Esanland in order to understand their mode of action in controlling hypertension. Key words; Medicinal plants, hypertension, phytochemistry. Introduction Hypertension is one of the principal health problems in the society and an important cause of cardio-vascular deaths in various communities worldwide. It is a silent killer whose onset of complications is insidious. Such complications as cardiac remodeling, hypertrophy, renal impairment, nephropathies and ocular complications such as retinopathies and cardiovascular accident or stroke (Benowitz, 2001) are associated with hypertension. Traditionally the use of plant parts as source of herbal preparations for treatment of various ailments are based on the experience passed from generation to generation, virtually by oral tradition and through practice and forms part of the indigenous knowledge of people of any locality (Olowofela, 1991; Sofowora, 1993). Most of these herbal remedies are known by our traditional healers and elderly men and women of families in our rural areas. The herbal knowledge or practices known by traditional healers are jealously guarded with utmost secrecy for economic reasons. According to Obute (2007), many traditional herbal practitioners also tend to hide the identity of plants used for different ailments largely for fear of lack of patronage should the patient learn to cure himself. Thus to mystify their trade, cultivation of the plant is not encouraged, consequently collection is virtually from the wild. Fortunately, some elders of the rural societies do willingly impart this knowledge to interested people sometimes on payment of an inducement fee and this has helped in the propagation of some herbal knowledge in this country. Infusions and decoctions have historically been the traditional dosage forms for orally administered medicinal plants. These infusions and decoctions are usually good for extracting water soluble active ingredients such as glycosides, mucilage, alkaloids, polysaccharides and tannins, but are limited by their unpleasant taste, shelf life; and the poor solubility of many phytochemicals in water. As a result, many modern herbal practitioners prefer tinctures and fluid extracts to infusions and decoctions. The use of alcohol / water mixture as solvent is efficient in extracting a wide variety of active ingredients. In addition alcohol is a good preservative for herbal preparations compared to water. Many herbal preparations are yet to be scientifically investigated. Some of the plants also contain potentially poisonous substances including mutagens, and carcinogens whose long term adverse effect may not be immediately obvious to the herbalists (Awosika, 1993). The authors of this report are not unmindful of the fact that like all other drugs some of the various herbal preparations are likely to have adverse effects. Furthermore, the concomitant ingestion of herbs and drugs or different herbal preparations is also of particular concern as there is potential for herb-drug or herb-herb interaction to occur (GHP 2007). A number of medicinal plants abound in Nigeria’s flora (Gbile, 1986) which is the richest country in West Africa with regards to medicinal plant resources. The country exhibits a wide range in terms of climate and topology which has a bearing on its vegetation and floristic composition. Some of the information on these medicinal plants are in books written by Dalziel (1937, 1948) Oliver, (1960), Ayensu (1978), Sofowora (1982, 1993) Gbile (1986), Gill (1992), Awosika, (1993), Iwu, (1993), Kafaru (1994), Dokosi, (1998), and Odugbemi (2006) Other records on herbs that are used to manage common ailments in Nigeria are scattered in the works of Adegoke et al. 1968 ), Gbile and Adesina (1987), Anonymous, (1993), Obute (2007), Okoli et al. (2007) and Mensah et al. (2008) among others. Herbal preparations are used in traditional medicine as crude drugs in various dosage forms, as whole, crushed, powdered forms, decoctions, dried extracts, infusions, poultices and tinctures (GHP 2007). Many of these plants have been investigated in recent times and found to contain active substances that are medically useful, whereas many more are yet to be scie ntifically investigated. A number of plant extracts used by natives in various parts of the world as arrow and ordeal poisons were later found to contain cardiac glycosides useful for the treatment of heart failure while others like physostigmine from the seed of Physostigma venenosun from Nigeria affect cardiac functions and are used in ordeal trials (Lawrence et al 1997 ). Rauwolfia serpentina which contains the alkaloid reserpine, was perhaps the first herbal preparation used for the treatment of hypertension. A West African species R. omitoria has been used for treating the same disease and other ailments by local herbalists for a long time. This species gives much higher yield than R. serpentina but yet to be exploited commercially. The drug Digitalis was mentioned in literature in 1250B. C in the writings of Welsh physicians. Until recently, products from Digitalis namely digitoxin and digoxin which are pure glycosides were the popular drugs for the management of congestive heart failure (Ghani, 1986, Ayitey Smith, 1989). Currently, diuretics and calcium chemical blockers have taken over as the drugs of choice for the treatment of the ailment in orthodox medicine. Traditional health practitioners in Esanland regularly employ a large number of tropical plants in various herbal preparations to manage different ailments endemic to the area. Their sources include common vegetables/fruits, leaves and root/stem barks of endemic plants. The purpose of this publication is to provide a bibliographical source for the study of various plants for the treatment of hypertension in Nigeria. It also reports on various herbal plants available in Esanland of Edo State of Nigeria used in the treatment of the disease and the active principles contained in them. Materials and Methods Survey of literature An initial literature survey was undertaken to enumerate herbal plants used in the management of hypertension in West-Africa with emphasis on Nigeria. Local and national publications were assessed and then documented to serve as bibliographical source for the study of various plants for the treatment of hypertension. Survey of medicinal plants used for managing hypertension in Esanland, Edo State. Patients who had records of the ailment volunteered information about various herbal homes where they received treatments. Consequently, relevant data were generated by visits to the herbal homes and twelve elderly women in ten settlements in Esanland where the patients had directed the researchers to obtain indigenous knowledge for the management of hypertension, were interviewed. The herbalists were accompanied to the bush/forest for direct collection of plants used for the management of hypertension. The information about the local names, usages, parts of plants used, methods of preparation and administration of plants was obtained from local healers, herbalists, experienced parents and patients by filling in questionnaires during personal interviews with them. Further literature search was undertaken to corroborate the claims by traditional healers as to which plants are used to manage hypertension. Plant samples which were not readily identified in the field were taken to he Department of Botany, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State of Nigeria for proper identification. The plants which were identified for managing hypertension in the various herbal homes and by the elderly during field collection in Esanland were subjected to further phytochemical studies. Collection of Samples and Phytochemical analysis The fresh plant/plant parts collected through the method describe above were screened, together with their families and vernacular names. The leaves/plant parts were was hed under running tap water, and dried in an oven at 700 C for 24 hours. With the aid of mortar, pestle, miller, grinder, these plant parts were homogenized to fine powder and stored in airtight bottles or containers for phytochemical analysis. One gram of powder was subjected to qualitative phytochemical tests for alkaloids (Myers Reagent), saponins (chloroform and H2SO4 tests), inulin (Molischs Reagent) cardiac glycosides (Keller-Kiliani test) and tannins (Ferric salt tests) adopting the procedures described by Stephen (1970); Obute (2007) and Parekh and Chanda (2007). Results and Discussion The literature search revealed about 33 plants which are used for various herbal preparations for the management of hypertension (Table 1). The list is however not exhaustive but gives a representation of what is available in West Africa and Nigeria in particular. Of the 33 plants recorded in this report, the material of interest is the leaf in 58%; roots account for 18% while stem barks and fruits/seeds accounted for 12 % each. The plants which were identified for managing hypertension in the various herbal homes and by the elderly during field collection in Esanland were Psidium guajava, Piper guineense, Loranthus spectobulus, Talinum triangulare, Senna occidentalis, Rauwolfia vomitoria, Allium sativum, Allium cepa, Carica papaya, Euphorbia hirta, Ocimum gratissimum, Persea americana, Peperomia pellucid and Vernonia amygdalina. Most of the plants used for managing hypertension were of general distribution and usage in West Africa and elsewhere on the African continent; while others were limited to specific localities. This confirms the assertion that traditional healing practices and indeed management of hypertension in local communities of West Africa is part of their cultural heritage and an indigenous knowledge developed to manage endemic diseases. The popularity and use of the different plants is therefore based on the flora of each locality. A total of 14 plants species distributed in 12 taxonomic families were noted in this work for the management of hypertension in Esanland. The plant species listed (Table 2) have been found useful in the treatment of hypertension and other disease conditions based on the endemic health problems of the different settlements within the study area. Edo State serves as a good reservoir for a variety of plant species and the conservation of medicinal plants because of its rich tropical vegetation which are preserved in 48 forest reserves occupying 23% of the land area of the State (439,139ha ; Azeke, 2002) The part of interest in the majority of the species encountered is the leaf. Included in the list of plant for treating hypertension are edible vegetables such as water leaf, bitter leaf, garlic, climbing black pepper and scent leaf which are available in various open markets within the study area. However, the local herbalists were quick to point out that they do not usually administer leafy vegetables to their patients as remedy for hypertension because their effects are slow. Consequently only patients with mild cases of the disease condition are put on vegetable soups while more potent herbs (mistletoe, pawpaw, bitter and avocado pear leaves) are administered alone or in combinations with other herbs to those with relatively more serious conditions. In the present study, the plants which were identified by various herbalists in Esanland for the management of hypertension were examined for alkaloids, inulins, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, tannins and saponins. The results of the various phytochemical tests revealed that alkaloids, saponins, inulins , tannins, flavonoids and cardiac glycosides were present in the plants studied (Table 3). Cardiac glycosides were present in all the species studied while alkaloids were present in all except A. sativum, A. cepa, O. gratissimum, P. americana. Saponnins are present in all except the seeds of negro coffee (S. accidentalis) , while tannins are present in all except bulbs of garlic ( A. sativum). Flavonoids were absent in the leaves of scent leaves (O. ratissimum), pawpaw (C. papaya), pear leaves (P. americana ) silver bush (P. pellucida ), and climbing pepper (Piper guineensis ). From the present study as well as interviews with the local herbalists. It could be concluded that plants that possessed tannins, cardiac glycosides and alkaloids are the most effective for managing hypertension and also providing protection for the heart. The general use of plants such as A. sativum , A. cepa, C. papaya, E. hirta, O. gratissimum, P. americana, P. pellucida, P. guajava, P. guineensis, V. amygdalina, R. omitoria, L. spectobulus, T. triangulare, and S. occidentalis in the management of hypertension and other disease condition in Esanland has also been reported in other parts of Nigeria and West Africa (Ampofo,1977, Amer and Court, 1980, Sofowora, and Odebiyi, 1987, Addae-Mensah and Musanga 1989, Gill,1992 and GHP 2007,). Herbal preparations The different herbs encountered at the different herbal homes have different medicinal properties and many of them have multiple uses and hence used for the management of more than one ailment. Thus Esan people have used some of these medicinal plants for controlling and managing hypertension and other types of ailments over the years. Gill (1992) , Anslem ( 2006) and Okoli et al (2007) have reported the effectiveness of garlic, leaves of avocado pear, pawpaw, bitter and mistletoe for the treatment of hypertension in Nigeria. Similarly, Ayitey Smith (1989) has reported the used of avocado pear, and bitter leaf for the management of hypertension and other disease condition in Ghana. Garlic has been confirmed to be very effective in the treatment of hypertension. The bulbs of garlic are blended with honey for the purpose of hypertension. The unripe rind of pawpaw is peeled and soaked in water and after three days, a cup is taken daily. The leaves are also used for treating hypertension. Leaves of avocado pear are cut into pieces, dried and made into tea, for the management of hypertension. Odugbemi (2006) has also documented the efficacy of the cotyledons of avocado pear seed for the treatment of hypertension. The cotyledons are cut into pieces, dried and grinded into powder. A dessert spoonful in 200ml hot water taken after meals gives relieve for the ailment. According to Odugbemi (2006) silver bush (P. pellucida) is also very effective in the treatment of hypertension. This is also in line with earlier reports by Ayitey-Smith (1989) in Ghana, and Anslem (2006) in Nigeria. P. guajava leaves are soaked in salt water, washed and squeezed and product made up with fresh water to give a greenish liquid that is taken, one glass two times daily for one week to increase blood level and ffer protection against heart attack. According to Addae- Mensah (1989) and Odugbemi (2006), climbing black pepper has been confirmed to be very active in the treatment of hypertension. Also, the fresh leaves of V. amygdalina are chewed and swallowed or ground, or stirred in water, and the liquid taken, to manage hypertension (Ayitey-Smith, 1989 and Okoli et al 2007). Gill (1992) has reported that a typical herbal preparation for managing hypertension in South west Nigeria contai ns Gladiolus, Sanseveira and Citrus spp. Conclusion and Recommendations Each community in Nigeria and indeed Esanland has its peculiar way of treating different ailments, and many plants are usually found useful for the treatment of common diseases such as hypertension. Efforts should be made at creating medicinal plant gardens and generally encourage the development of medicinal plants as a way of enhancing adequate health care for the people considering the rising incidence of complications and death due to hypertension.. Medicinal plant products still remain the primary source of supply of many important drugs in orthodox medicine today. Since there are so many of these naturally occurring substances of plant origin (which cover a wider range than synthetic chemicals), it is obvious that the plant kingdom offers a better opportunity of providing useful medicinal compounds for the treatment of hypertension. Furthermore, elucidating the chemical structure of active components of herbs also makes room for synthetic modifications for better pharmacokinetic profiles. It is believed that the plants used by the Esan people of Edo State, Nigeria could be potential sources of drugs if the active ingredients are identified and adequately characterized. Also self reliance (as it relates to local sourcing / manufacturing of drugs) is worth considering as it is an area in which most developing countries have a strong potential which can help to improve the people’s health standard. It is important to remark that traditional medicine is at a transitional stage in the development of modern medicines in developing countries, thus progressive and conscious efforts must be made to accelerate the transformation. Furthermore, intensive and systematic research programmes must be drawn up and implemented for the purpose of accelerating the transformation by putting science into the art of traditional medicine. Until this is achieved, traditional medicine must play a complementary role in our health care delivery system of the indigenous communities in Esanland of Edo State, Nigeria. References Addae – Mensah, I. and Munenge, R. W. 1989. Quercetin – 3 – neohesperidose (rutin) and other flavonoids as the active hypoglycaemic agents in Bridelia ferruginea. Fitoterapia, (4) : 359 – 362. Adegoke, E. A. Akisanya, A, and Naqvi, S. H. Z. 1968. Studies of Nigerian medicinal plants I. Preliminary survey of plant alkaloids. Journal of West African Science Association 13 (1): 13-33. Amer, M. M. and Court, W. E. 1980. Leaf alkaloids of Rauwolfia vomitoria. Phytochem. 19: 1833 – 1836. Ampofo, O. 1977. Some clinical observations on the treatment of selected diseases by herba l preparations. Paper presented at the international Conference on Medical Plant Research, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Anonymous 1993. Traditional Medicine as the solution to the Nigeria Health Problem. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Health Medicine 9, 3-4. Anslem, A. 2006. Nature Power. Christian Approach to Herbal Medicine. Don Bosco Training Centre, School of PTP, Printing and Finishing, Akure. 206p. Awosika, F. 1993. Local Medicine Plants and the Health of the Consumers. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Herbal Medicine. 7, 3 – 4. Ayitey – Smith, E. 1989. Prospect and Scope of Plant Medicine in Health Care. Ghana University Press, Accra. 29pp. Ayensu, E. S. 1978 Medical plants of West Africa. Reference Publications. Michigan USA Azeke, I. E. 2002. Forestry contribution to Edo State economy. In: Forest, people and the environment. Popoola. L. (Ed. ). Proceedings of 2nd National Workshop organized by FANCONSULT and Edo State Chapter of Forestry Association of Nigeria, held in Benin-City, Edo State, 5-6 September, 2002. Benowitz, N. L. 2001. Cardiovascular – renal drugs in remedy of hypertension. In; Basic clinical Pharmacology, Ketzung B. G. (Ed. ). Appleton and Lang, 7th edition. Stanford, Connecticut, USA. Dalziel, J. M. 1937 1948. Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. The Crown Agents for the Colonies. London. Dokosi, O. B. 1998. Herbs of Ghana . Ghana University Press. Accra 746p. Gbile, Z. O. 1986. Ethnobotany, Taxonomy and Conservation of Medicinal Plants. Pp. 13 -29. In: The state of medicinal plant research in Nigeria. Sofowora, A. (Ed. ), University of Ibadan Press, Ibadan, Nigeria. Gbile, Z. O. and Adesina, S. K. 1987. Nigeria Floral and its Pharmaceutical Potentials. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 19: 1 – 16. Ghani, A. 1986. Medicinal plants and traditional medicine portions: Problems and prospects of their standardization, In: The state of medicinal plants research in Nigeria. Soforowa, A. (Ed), University of Ibadan Press, Ibadan, Nigeria, 404p. Gill, L. S. 1992. Ethno medical uses of Plants in Nigeria. Uniben Press, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. 276p. GHP 1992. Ghana Herbal Pharmacopeia. The Advent Press, Accra, Ghana. 152p. GHP 2007. Ghana Herbal Pharmacopeia. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). Accra, 295pp. Iwu, M. 1993. Handbook of African medicinal plants. CRS Press, Boca Raton, Florida USA. Kafaru, E. 1994. Immense Help from Nature’s Workshop. Elikaf Health Services Ltd, Lagos. 150p. Lawrence, D. R, Bennett, P. N. and Brown, M. J. 1997. Clinical pharmacology. Churchill Livingstone , USA, Pp. 99-411. Mensah, J. K. , Okoli, R. I. , Ohaju-Obodo, J. O. and Eifediyi, K. 2008. Phytochemical, nutritional and medical properties of some leafy vegetables consumed by Edo people of Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (14). 2304-2309, Obute, G. C. 2007. Ethnomedicinal Plant Resources of South Eastern Nigeria. African Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. 3 (1): 90 – 94. Odugbemi, T. T. 2006. Outline and Pictures of Medicinal Plants from Nigeria. University of Lagos Press, Lagos, Nigeria, 283pp. Okoli, R. I. , Aigbe, O. , Ohaju – Obodo, J. O, and Mensah, J. K. 2007. Medicinal herbs used for managing some common ailments among Esan people of Edo state, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 6(5): 490 – 496. Oliver, B. 1960. Medicinal plants in Nigeria. Univ. of Ibadan, Nigeria, 139 p. Olowofela, O. 1991. Herbs, the Ancient Remedy. Guardian Newspaper, Thursday 27th June, 1991, 7 (5892) : 12 – 23. Parekh, J. and Chanda, S. V. 2007. In vitro antimicrobial activity and phytochemical analysis of some Indian medicinal plants. Turk. J. Biol. 31: 53-58. Sofowora, A. 1982. Medicinal plants and traditional medicine. John Wiley Sons Ltd. New York. Sofowora, A. 993. Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, WHO, Document No. 30, 69pp. Sofowora, E. A. ,and Odebiyi, O. O. 1987. Phytochemical Screening of Nigeria Medicinal Plants. Lloydia 4: 234. Stephen, K. S. 1970. Medicinal plant alkaloids. The University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada. Table 1. Some plants listed for treatment of hypertension in West Africa. S/Nr. Plants Plant material of interest Reference 1. Bridelia furruginea Benth Leaves Addae Mensah, 1992, Ampofo,1977 2. Cryptolepsis sanguinolenta (Lindl. ) Schit Roots Raymond-Hamet,1938 3. Elaeophorbia drupifera (Thonn. ) Stapf Roots Eno and Owo, 1999 4. Fagara xanthoxyloides Lam. Root and stem bark GHP, 2007 5. Allium sativum L. Bulbs Barrie et al, 1987 Anslem, 2006. 6. Zingiber officinale Roscoe Rhizomes GHP 2007 7. Psidium guajava L. Leaves GHP, 1992, 8. Heliotropium indicum L. Leaves Burkill, 1985 Kerharo and Adams, 1974. 9. Citrus aurantifolia Christm. Leaves, Fruit juice. Abimbola- Sodipe, 1986 10. Lippia multifolia Mold Leaves Mwangi, 1990. 11. Azadirachta indica. A. Juss Leaves Chaltopadhyay, 1997 12. Senna occidentalis (L. )Link. Seeds Ayitey Smith, 1989 13. Paullina pinnata L. Leaves Broadbent, 1962 Zamble et al, 2006 14. Papaya carica L. Unriped fruits Leaves Eno et al, 2000. Ayitey- smith, 1989 15. Phyllanlus ninuri Lour Leaves GHP, 1992 16. Rauwolfia vomitoria Afzel Roots Raymond Hamet, 1944,Oliver 1960, Aslem,2006 La Barre ,1973. 17. Strophantus hispidus. A. P. de Candolle Roots GHP ( 2007) 18. Scoparia ternata Forssk Leaves GHP ( 2007) 19. Venonia amygdalna Del. Leaves Gill 1992 20. Persea africana Mill Leaves, Seed cotyledons Ayitey Smith, 1989 Gill, 1992. Abimbola Sodipe, 1986. 21. Canthium subcordalium DC Stem barks Ayitey Smith, 1989. 22. Loranthus spectobulus, L. Leaves Kafaru (1994) Gill, 1992 23. Gladiolus sp. L Inner bars Abimbola- Sodipe, 1986 24. Khaya senegalensis ( Desr. ) A. Juss Stem barks Gill, 1992 25. Erythrophleum suaveolens (Guill Perr. ) Brenan Root barks Gbile, 1986 26. Ficus asperifolia Miq. Leaves Anslem,2006 27. Talinum triangulare (Jacq. )Wild. Leaves/Roots Anslem, 2006 28. Lantana camara L. Leaves Anslem, 2006 29 Dichapetium heudebtii Engl. Leaves Okoli et al 2007 30 Lophira alata Banks ex Gaertn. f.. Stem barks Gill, 1992 31 Magnifera indica L Stem barks Gill, 1992 32 Detarium microcarpum Guill Perr. Leaves Gill, 1992 33 Gongrenema latifolia L. Leaves Okoli et al. 2007 Table 2. Ethno botanical information on Medicinal plant species used in Edo State for the treatment of hypertension. S/n. Plant species Family Common names Local names (Esan)/Benin Part used Preparation and administration 1. Allium sativum Alliaceae Garlic Ayi Bulb Bulbs are minced (5 10) and blended with honey three spoons are taken three times daily. 2. Allium cepa Alliaceae Onion Anubasa Bulb Bulbs are minced (5 10) with a bottle of honey four spoons is taken three times daily. 3. Carica papaya Caricaceae Pawpaw Okodu Leaf Leaf is crushed, little quantity of H20 and native chalk is added to it, the extract is taken orally. . Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae Asthma weed Azugben Leaf It is prepared as soup, and taken orally. 5. Ocimum gratissimum Laminaceae Scent leaf Ebelanma khokho Leaf A glass of leaf extract is taken before meal. 6. Persea americana Lauraceae Avocado pear Olumuebo Leaf Fresh leaves are ground, boiled in water, half a tumbler is taken. 7. Peperomia pellucida Piperaceae Sil ver bush Leaf Leaves are washed, air dried and made into powdered form, which is then taken as tea. 8. Psidium guajava Myrtaceae Guava Gova Leaf Infusion of the matured leaves is taken orally 1 cup, 1 – 3 times daily. 9. Piper guineenses Piperaceae Climbing black pepper Usira Leaf Leaves are prepared as soup. 10. Vernonia amygdalina Asteraceae Bitter leaf Oriwo Leaf Leaves prepared as soup or infusion and taken orally after meal at night. 11. Rauvolfia vomitoria Apocynaceae Serpent wood Root Infusion of the roots is taken as tea. 12 Loranthus spectobulus Loranthaceae Mistletoe Leaf Infusion taken as tea 13 Talinum triangulare Portulacaceae Water leaf Ebe-dondo Leaf Leaf infusions are taken as tea or cut roots into pieces and made as decoction. 14 Senna occidentalis Fabaceae Negro coffee Seeds Roasted, grounded and taken as beverage Table 3. Phytochemical Analysis of Screened Medicinal Plant Species. S/n Plant Species Tannins Saponins Flavonoids Cardiac glycosides Alkaloids Inulin 1. Allium sativum _ + + + _ + 2. Allium cepa + + + + _ + 3. Carica papaya + + _ + + + 4. Euphorbia hirta + + + + + + 5. Ocimum gratissimum + + _ + _ + 6. Persea americana + + _ + + + 7. Peperomia pellucida + + _ + _ + 8. Psidium guajava + + + + + + 9. Piper guineensis + + _ + + + 10. Vernonia amygdalina + + + + + + 11. Rauvolfia vomitoria + + + + + + 12 Loranthus spectobulus + + + + + + 13 Talinum triangulare + + + + + 14 Senna occidentalis + + + + + | | [pic][pic][pic]

Why Do People Tolerate Class Subordination

Spanish Words for Work

Spanish Words for Work Although the related Spanish words trabajo (noun) and trabajar (verb) likely first come to mind as translations for the English word work, in fact work has an array of meanings that must be conveyed in Spanish in other ways. Key Takeaways Trabajo (noun) and trabajar (verb) are frequently used to refer to human labor.Funcionar is commonly used when saying whether a thing works.Many idiomatic phrases using work need to be learned individually for translation. Translating 'Work' as Employment Trabajo and trabajar are frequently used to mean work when it refers to employment: Mi hermano busca trabajo. (My brother is looking for work.)Va al trabajo cada maà ±ana vestido de una camisa blanca. (He goes to work every day dressed in a white shirt.) ¿Quà © tipo de trabajo ests buscando? (What line of work are you looking for?)Si trabajamos es importante trazarnos metas realistas a cumplir. (If we work it is important to develop realistic goals to accomplish.)Katrina y yo trabajamos juntos. (Katrina and I work together.)La mayorà ­a de sus parientes masculinos trabajaron en la fbrica. (Most of her male relatives worked in the factory.) When work refers to a job, empleo can also be used: Segà ºn la agencia, el 65 por ciento de los hondureà ±os no tiene empleo. (According to the agency, 65 percent of Hondurans dont have work.)El empleo es la clave para erradicar la pobreza. (Work is the key to eradicating poverty.)Su empleo puede interferir con sus obligaciones acadà ©micas. (Your work can interfere with your academic obligations.) 'Work' Referring to Functioning When to work is a synonym of to function, funcionar can often be used: Este mà ©todo no funciona en todos los casos. (This method doesnt work in every case.)El modelo econà ³mico chino funciona bien. (The Chinese economic model works well.)Cuando una computadora funciona mal el primer paso es rehabilitar al operador. (When a computer works poorly the first step is to retrain the operator.) Similarly, to work meaning to have an effect can be translated as surtir efecto: La protesta campesina surte efecto. The farmworkers protest is working.Desgraciadamente, la medicina no surtià ³ efecto. Unfortunately, the medicine didnt work. 'To Work Out' The phrase work out can be translated in various ways depending on what is meant. As you learn Spanish, you may be best off thinking of other English words that have the same meaning and translate them instead: Todo muy biensale para Santos. (Everything worked out (turned out) very well for Santos.)Si hace ejercicio en un gimnasio, pida asistencia antes de probar algo nuevo. (If you work out (exercise) in a gymnasium, ask for help before trying something new.)Necesito ayuda para resolver estes crucigramas. (I need help to work out (solve) these crossword puzzles.) Similarly, if uses of work dont fit well in any of the above categories, see if you can think of a good English synonym and try translating that word instead: Est desempleado. (Hes out of work (unemployed).)Los peones labraban la tierra. (The farmhands worked (cultivated) the ground.)El artista prefiere pintar al à ³leo. (The artist prefers to work (paint) in oils.)Soy adicto a trabajo. (Im a workaholic (addicted to work).)Se puso frenà ©tico cuando leyà ³ la carta. (He worked himself into (became) a frenzy when he read the letter.)Fue impactado en el pecho por un tornillo que se soltà ³. He was struck in the chest by a screw that had worked itself loose (became loose).Este problema es imposibe de evitar. (This problem is impossible to work around (avoid).)Mi hermana completà ³ el proyecto escolar con rpidez. (My sister made short work (completed rapidly) of the school project.) There are also a few ways work is used that have specific equivalents, the most common being obra as an artistic creation: Nuestro sistema solar es una obra de arte. (Our solar system is a work of art.) Similarly, a reference work is an obra de referencia. The phrase piece of work or real piece of work, when referring to a person, can be translated in numerous ways, depending on precisely on what is meant. You could say, for example, the the person crea problemas (creates problems), es difà ­cil (is difficult), or es complicado (is complicated). There are also idiomatic phrases such as calling the person todo un personaje (loosely, quite a personality) or una buena pieza (literally, a good piece). The translations given above for work are far from the only possibilities, and are intended to give you a feel for the different ways of approaching translation of the word.

Analysis Of The Royal Dutch Shell Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Analysis Of The Royal Dutch Shell - Essay Example The cases of oil spillage are the serious issue and also the shift of the consumers demand towards cleaner technologies to reduce pollution is a serious problem. In terms of opportunities, Shell is innovating newer technologies and low carbon solutions so as to ensure product standard and the cleaner environment. The company has been benefitted by the rise in the global demand for the Liquefied Natural Gas and therefore, there is an opportunity to expand in other economies. The threats faced by Shell are mainly oil price fluctuations in the global market, high competition, product substitution and stringent governmental rules and regulations regarding environmental concerns. 1.2. Operational strategies. The successful performance of a company depends on the organization structure, its external and internal environment. Shell has its own service stations, wide market, and transport and trade network, energy-efficient technologies for production like solar panels. The company also work s with collaboration with government, society, and industry which enables them to provide best quality products and services (Hill, Jones and Schilling, 2014). 2.0. Social and Ethical Issues for Evaluation of Economic Impact There are certain social and ethical factors that are needed to be emphasized because they have been known environmental activists for their mistakes. There are constant questions regarding the use of the technologies used by Shell and whether they are environmentally friendly or not.

Other Financial Management Techniques Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Other Financial Management Techniques - Essay Example The implementation of wrong performance measures would mean that the management has not allocated balanced weight-ages to all these four areas of organizational goals in order to link it to the compensation structure of the employees. The tying of wrong performance measures to the compensation of the employees would mean that it has the likelihood of giving rise to unethical behaviour among the workers and the employees in the manufacturing plants (Tonchia and  Quagini, 2010). The examples of wrong performance being tied to compensation include the aspects in which the performance of the employees is linked only with the volume of output with ignorance in the quality of the finished products being produced by the companies. The management often pays more attention to the volume of output and overlooks the quality of the product being offered in the market. Thus linking the compensation structure with such performance measure could lead the employees to adopt short-cut procedures in the process of manufacturing. This would give rise to unethical behaviour among the employees and they would engage in work activities that would allow them to produce more products in the manufacturing process. The concentration solely towards the volume of output may lead to procurement of high amount of raw materials and inventory but the service level of the workers may suffer. This has been shown by the graph given below. The companies may not track important and quality contribution of the employees and may not give reward such activities of the workers are example of wrong performance measures being linked to compensation. This would lead to the decline of the quality of the work in the production unit and unethical behaviours may surface where the employees would be driven to get incentive without meeting the requirements of product quality, service level to the customers, etc. It would also lead to unethical behaviours of performing in such a way that fulfils the short ter m interests of the employees to get more compensation but compromises on the goals of the organization in terms of meeting the quantity and quality level for several business contracts. Steps of EEC: avoidance of unethical behaviour The Eddison Electronics Company (EEC) is required to active steps for avoiding unethical behaviour in the manufacturing units that produces several electronic items. In order to avoid unethical behaviour, EEC would be required to link the compensation of the employees with the right performance measurement measures. In order to do this, EEC would need to assess the short term and long term goals of the company and the deadlines to be met in terms of the contracts to be delivered over the period of time. This would enable EEC to understand the exact requirement from their workforce or the output required from the workforce in terms of both volume of the output and the quality of service to their customers. EEC would need to link the compensation of the wo rkforce with the various areas like financial targets of the company, customer service to be delivered, the internal benchmarks of product innovation, quality and steps to maintain high service level for the customers and the initiatives to be taken to maintain a culture for the growth of

Infant Mortality in Maryland Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Infant Mortality in Maryland - Essay Example According to reports, Maryland is considered to have the highest household income of any other US State garnering a GDP of at least $68,080 in the year 2007 which notes the capability of the community to handle the financing needed to complete the projects and programs needed to be provided to the society. One of the most important factors considered in community healthcare issues is the factor concerning mortality rates. This issue is much intertwined with the healthcare provisions that local governments are able to provide to their territories of concern depending on the population rate of the place (Johnson, 2005: Internet). Certainly, when it comes to smaller states, this issue is given a high regard as it also determines the capability of the local government to give the needs of their people. When it comes to mortality rate issues, this mainly concerns the ability of the states to hold their capability on providing community health care especially to the newly born. From this point, it could be accepted that this factor could also help evaluate the strengths and the weaknesses of the local government of the community in providing ample support to the healthcare needs of the entire society. In this regard, the infant mortality rate of Prince Georges County in Maryland shall be examined to be able to notice the problems and the weaknesses of the community health car... Certainly, when it comes to smaller states, this issue is given a high regard as it also determines the capability of the local government to give the needs of their people. When it comes to mortality rate issues, this mainly concerns the ability of the states to hold their capability on providing community health care especially to the newly born. From this point, it could be accepted that this factor could also help evaluate the strengths and the weaknesses of the local government of the community in providing ample support to the healthcare needs of the entire society. In this regard, the infant mortality rate of Prince Georges County in Maryland shall be examined to be able to notice the problems and the weaknesses of the community health care provisions in the said place as they are marked by health statistics to be among the counties having the lowest mortality rates in the United States. Background of the Issue The drop-down of the infant mortality rate in Maryland determines the need of the said state to improve their health care facilities as well as their health care processes. It has been mentioned through reports that in the year 2000 that the infant mortality rate in the said county has dramatically fallen down to as low as 7.4 deaths in every one thousand live births (HD, PGC, 2003: Internet). This decline of infant's life span stretches to both the white and the black communities of the said state. Because of this situation, an issue against the healthcare processes practiced within hospitals in Maryland specifically in Georges County has been questioned as to how the healthcare givers are able to apply the right procedures in giving care to the newly born babies. Among their concerns, also include issues on giving proper

Ethical And Legal Analysis Of Mckinnon Case

Ethical And Legal Analysis Of Mckinnon Case This assignment I based upon an article published online on the 15th of May 2009 by popular computing Magazine PC Pro (see appendix A). The article discussed Gary McKinnon who has been accused of hacking a number of United States (US) NASA, Army, Navy, Department of Defence, and Air Force systems. His US prosecutors insist he was acting with malicious intent and that he caused damage worth over $700,000. McKinnon denies acting with malicious intent or that he caused that much damage, citing that his motivation was to search for evidence of secret free fuel, anti-gravity and UFO technologies. McKinnon has stated that the network security was weak and he was able to gain access due to network administrators failing to use secure passwords on high level administrative accounts. Once inside, McKinnon used readily available software called RemotelyAnywhere to take control of machines. The case study identifies that his search became an addiction which took over his life. Rationale The Gary McKinnon case sprung to the headlines in 2001, the media frenzy surrounding the case would support the tagline of the biggest military hack of all time. The case has been open for over nine years now and the end is not yet in sight; indicating that the legal issues within the case are both complex and in no way, easy to dissever. The extensive and drawn-out media coverage adds to the complexity of the issues surrounding the case. This case study has been chosen firstly as it covers a very current issue in hacking. It would seem that hacking cases would only increase in the future as more nations cross the digital divide. Electronic crime is difficult to police and further difficulties arise out of international crimes. The nature of electronic communication and the removal of physical boundaries provide complexities in electronic crime and the control of borderless technologies. This case study has been chosen as it is particularly exposed to ethical questioning as law does not adequately resolve this case. This case study has been chosen for ethical and legal analysis not just for its high profile. Numerous actors can be identified in this case to provide a solid base to apply a pragmatic analysis of ethical issues though the direction of ethical frameworks. Primary actors in this case are identified as the Gary McKinnon and the network administrators responsible for security. Secondary actors have been identified as the makers of RemotelyAnywhere, the software which allowed McKinnon to control machines so easily and the US military who were the owners of the networks and data stored there. Similarly, these actors provide a basis to identify legal issues inherent within the case study. There are sufficient suggestions to argue that laws have been broken by both primary actors in this case. Technology strides on through the digital age where the other side of the world is accessible at our fingertips and a mere four billion IP addresses are not fulfilling needs. For this reason, it cannot be helped but to feel that hacking cases will only increase in scale and/or frequency and perhaps the Gary McKinnon case will be surpassed in the future. At first glance this case appears to be a typical hacking case, where the person committing the offence is acting for purely personal reasons to commit fraud or otherwise take something which isnt theirs to take. However this case differs in that there is no reason to believe that McKinnon was acting with the intent to take anything which was not his or to gain any personal advantage from his actions. Actors objecting to McKinnons actions are those who were responsible for the security of the network and those who owned the network. Ethical Frameworks Modern day normative ethical frameworks are broadly divided into two. Deontology, based on moral intention and input, and conversely Teleology which is centred around the output and end result. Teleological Teleology is the philosophical stance that an action may be critiqued based upon its consequences. It is commonly thought of with the view that the end may justify the means (Edgar, 2002; Bynum and Rogerson, 2006; Weckert, 2007), therefore teleological frameworks are concerned with the end result of an action. Utilitarianism is a type of teleological theory, which emphasises that the end result is important rather than the intentions of an individual. Its main principle is specifically to seek to maximise happiness through consequences (Spinello, 1995). It therefore claims that an action may be judged based wholly upon its usefulness in bringing about happiness. Speaking on utilitarianism it was observed by Velasquez (1992) that the principle assumes all benefits and costs of an action can be measured on a common numerical scale of moral calculus (p.61). To what constitutes happiness and its worth would largely depend upon the individual critiquing the action. For example McKinnon may argue that his happiness in doing this for so long was far greater than the unhappiness caused for the US Government who has lots of money and resources, yet the utilitarian frame work aims to maximise the greatest happiness of all those whose interest is in question. (Lyons, 2003 p.27). So everyone affected must come into consideration, this includes: the network administrators, the US government, McKinnon and the makers of RemotelyAnywhere. It can be argued that McKinnon was attempting to maximise happiness by uncovering secret technologies. However a utilitarian framework is only concerned with the happiness actually brought about as a result from an action (Spinello, 1995) rather than intent. Whilst McKinnon is the primary actor and the main benefiter, in the article he is quoted as saying I think I wanted to be caught, because it was ruining me (Turton, 2009). This indicates that McKinnons happiness was short lived and as a result produced unhappiness from him quitting his job and splitting up with his girlfriend. The makers of the software RemotelyAnywhere subsequently had much publicity, however this is predominantly negative publicity as their software was used to commit crime. A small benefit may be that those wishing to commit crime, would buy their software more, even if this is not its intended purpose. A large amount of unhappiness would come from the owners of the network, the US government. The break-in has caused a large amount of embarrassment for the government, intensified by the claims that the security was weak. Even if the allegations that McKinnon deliberately caused damage are untrue, the cost of finding, tracking and fixing the break-in may be more co stly than the actual offense (Baase, 2003). This could be gauged both in terms of money and time. Utilitarian ethics assumed happiness can be somehow calculated. An action can be deemed correct if the total good minus the total bad is greater than that of an alternative (Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006). It is emphasised that the happiness is calculated based upon everyone who would be affected by the action. This is opposite to egoism, which is only concerned with the happiness of the individual undertaking the action (Johnson, 2001; Spinello, 1995). Based upon egoism, McKinnons actions are justified as he was acting purely for his own enjoyment with disregard for anyone else. However as he was caught, the sentence he will most likely receive may outweigh his current happiness. In weighing up the good verses the bad consequences of an action, the distinction must be made between act utilitarians and rule utilitarians. Baase (2003) gives the explanation that rule utilitarianism, applies the utility principle not to individual actions but to general ethical rules. (p.406). In evaluating this case study, it would be difficult to agree that computer hacking is always okay, as this is an invasion of privacy therefore creates much unhappiness. However an argument for applying this as a general rule may be given, as hacking large, private and ungoverned organisations such as the army navy or NASA would ultimately lead to them being more truthful and open about matters. Being honest and encouraging others to be truthful is something that a rule utilitarian would certainly agree with. This argument is of course independent of the allegations that McKinnon caused damage in his apparent search for secrets. The long term effects, in rule utillitarians perspective, coul d be that hacking prestigious governmental networks may cause panic amongst other network administrators or individuals which wish to have their data kept secure. It could likely lead those responsible in this case to lose their jobs. Knowing that data is not private and may be scrutinised can lead to individuals acting differently than they would otherwise; perhaps to the extent that inhibits them from doing their job as well as they otherwise would (Johnson, 2001). Allowing hacking to be justified in all cases may even lead to questioning if electronic data can be kept securely at all! Alternatively, had McKinnon uncovered evidence of UFO technology, the happiness generated would perhaps be greater than unhappiness, and may then be justifiable. Rule utilitarianism fails to foresee the inherent difficulties in predicting the consequences of every act of computer hacking, therefore it is difficult to apply from a practical point of view. Although it may be idealist to conclude that this is would only be suitable for a hindsight evaluation, a rule utilitarian would insist all other cases come into consideration. This is unrealistic and inherently flawed. Act utilitarianism is only concerned with the current action under scrutiny. In applying this to the current case study it was believed by McKinnon that the resulting happiness would far outweigh that of unhappiness. However Johnson (2001) highlights that in making decisions on current actions, the norm or general rules may only be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦abandoned in situations where it is clear more happiness will result from breaking them. (p.40). McKinnon acknowledges in the case that he gained little in evidence of UFO activity. It is presented that his motivation was to prove the US was withholding information on technologies including anti-gravity propulsion and free energy (Turton, 2009). However, McKinnon alluded to his friends that he had found little or no evidence. Bynum and Rogerson (2006) agree that in a utilitarian framework The risk and probabilities count alsoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (p.72). As McKinnon says that there was little previous evidence of UFO technology then surely accordi ng to a rule utilitarian he should not have ignored the general rule as it was not clear that his actions would result in greater general happiness, consequently it did not. It is identified in the case that McKinnon was only able to access the network due to the action of network administrators in leaving accounts without passwords. The actions of the network administrators would seem unethical under a utilitarian framework when considering the alterative of setting a strong password, which would have had a more desirable effect. Whilst it was not known in this case study if setting passwords would have denied McKinnon unauthorised access, the risk of not setting passwords, as identified by Bynum and Rogerson (2006), would have been extremely high, and the probability that someone would eventually exploit this also high. Whilst it is likely that this error was made due to carelessness rather than a conscious decision, the assumption is made that this was an action that could have been avoided. However this negligence does not automatically justify unauthorised access, under the utilitarian framework the total happiness must be weighed against unhappines s. The happiness generated by this negligent behaviour would primarily be for network administrators who would have been able to log on to machines without having to type passwords. Happiness would have been given to potential hackers too who were more easily able to access the network. Even though allowing hackers in may not have been intended, a utilitarian framework is purely concerned with consequences (Baase, 2003; Bynum and Rogerson, 2006; Spafford, 2006; Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006). As all affected individuals are judged equal (Bynum and Rogerson, 2006) the happiness of terrorists or other hackers must count as a positive consequence: Regardless of a persons station in life, each person is counts the same when the benefits and harms are added up (Bynum and Rogerson, p.71). Alternatively the US government may argue that the unhappiness was far greater from McKinnons actions due to the number of people that would have been affected by shutting down a network of computers. To take this stance the long term view must be disregard, that McKinnons action highlighted a serious security flaw that could have been exploited by a far more astute hacker. To delve even deeper into the realm of possibilities, by McKinnon hacking and getting caught on this occasion, he could have removed any chance of someone being able to hack US government computers ever again, perhaps at a time when hacking US computers would allow millions of lives to be saved. A common criticism of the utilitarian framework is the assumption that huge unhappiness could be justified upon one person for the sake of ten others. This argument could be countered by forcing the acknowledgement of long term consequences as well as the short term consequences (Johnson, 2001). For example, the case study (appendix A) must try and foresee the long term effects of the action. The majority of these long term effects are known as the act was committed back in 2001. Nether the less the unknown unknowns severely limit the reasoning behind making a decision on utilitarian principles. Even if it is believed all the alternatives, consequences and all individuals which will be affected by the consequences have been identified, how can these be verified? A posteriori knowledge may be useful in identifying these, that is, a decision that has been arrived at after the event or perhaps by applying what has happened before. A large issue arising from utilitarianism is that withou t the benefit of hindsight, it is difficult to apply practical reasoning to identify the outcome of an action. Deontological Deontology was first coined by C. D. Broad when he used it in a term to contrast that of Teleological theories based on outcome. However, a deontological approach could be best personified by the earlier work of Immanuel Kant (1785) in saying The moral worth of an action does not lie in the effect expected from it (p.13). Deontologists argue the morality of an argument is based entirely on intentions of ones actions. Immanuel Kant is often presented as the prime example of a deontologist (Baase, 2003). Kantian ethics argues that it is not the consequence that makes an action right or wrong; it is the intentions of the individual carrying out the action. Kant (1785) argues that It is not necessary that whilst I live I live happily; but it is necessary that so long as I live I should live honourably. (p.13). This statement suggests that upon making an honourable decision, this will be the correct thing to do and therefore Kant must assume that this will likely have good consequences. Deciding upon what is honourable and therefore what would be the right thing to do, is largely dictated by law. However other influences may come from upbringing, social characteristics or religious beliefs; for example, McKinnon may have been influenced by his own background in belief of UFOs. It would appear that McKinnons belief in UFOs influenced his actions. McKinnon hacked military machines in an effort to discover secret UFO technology, which would appear to be in conflict with a deontological framework as he is using the action as a mere means to an end. However, as Johnson (2001) points out, a deontological framework dictates that a decision is not used as just a means to an end; it may be justified if that end is moral. In applying this to the current case study we can define that the end result was to discover hidden UFO technologies; McKinnons means of doing this was through hacking. Even though McKinnon states he did not intend to cause harm, but merely look. This perhaps is justifiable if the end result was intended to give the world knowledge of these technologies. The stumbling block in this case is that McKinnon did not have authorisation to do this. Alternatively if the US Government had agreed that McKinnon may hack their computer system on the condition of not causing any damage and just to look, this would have been entir ely ethical on accordance to a deontological framework. It is difficulty to define McKinnons intent as he did not appear to find such evidence and secondly because he was caught. Kants specific class of deontology states I should never act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become universal law (p.14). This again is similar to that of a rule utilitarian, in that if an action cannot be justified on every occasion, if is unethical. In leaving admin accounts without passwords, the professionalism of network administrators may certainly be placed into question, yet it is difficult to identify a motive behind doing so. The key issue driving deontological ethics is the notion of motives. There does not appear to be a motive being this action just negligence. Johnson describes negligence as a failure to do something that a reasonable and prudent person would have done (Johnson, 2001 p.184). Johnsons definition quite adequately describes the system administrators who may have been responsible for leaving high level administrative accounts without adequate security. Therefore under a deontological framework, the actions of the network administrators was unethical. Apposition to Kantian ethics is largely twofold. Firstly, that Kants philosophy is grounded on a universal duty or maxim that can be accepted across the board, which begs the question of what should be adhered to if an action divides two moral maxims. In hacking military machines, McKinnon can only be acting upon his personal duty to find out the truth about UFO existence, but in doing so, ignored the duty to respect others personal property. This highlights the second major issue with Kants philosophy, which is, which maxim should take priority. The ethical principles outlined by Kant rely upon the basis of moral absolutism. This is contrasted by the views of W.D Ross. Ross defined seven initial or prima facie duties: Duty of beneficence: A duty to help other people (increase pleasure, improve character) Duty of non-maleficence: A duty to avoid harming other people. Duty of justice: A duty to ensure people get what they deserve. Duty of self-improvement: A duty to improve ourselves. Duty of reparation: A duty to recompense someone if you have acted wrongly towards them. Duty of gratitude: A duty to benefit people who have benefited us. Duty of promise-keeping: A duty to act according to explicit and implicit promises, including the implicit promise to tell the truth. (Johnson, 2001) Ross defines these as common duties (but in no way absolute) to be upheld regardless of the situation. For example the duty of promise-keeping may be ignored for the duty of beneficence. In light of Rosss variation of deontological ethics, McKinnons hacking of military machines may only be justified under the reason that he was acting upon his personal duty to find out the truth about UFO existence (the duty of beneficence). But in doing so, ignoring the duty to respect others personal property (the duty of non-maleficence). The predominant issue with applying a deontological framework is identifying the intent of an action, this is also somewhat marred by the fact that McKinnon has not yet been charged. McKinnons truthfulness may be contested because he is bias; he would likely say anything to get out of facing a possible extradition and prison sentence. There are suggestions brought forward from his prosecutors that insist McKinnon caused $700,000 worth of damage. The consequences of his action are disregarded under this framework (Kant, 1785), yet this may suggest that his intentions were not simply to find UFO technology. McKinnons actions would not be justifiable if his intentions were to cause damage. If it can be assumed that McKinnons actions were only to search for evidence then a deontological frame would dictate this is ethically justifiable. However, if Kants view is taken into consideration then is cannot be judged that hacking to search for secret technologies is universally justified. Virtue ethics Virtue ethics dates back to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle believed in excellence in human character though upholding virtues (Tavani, 2007; Bynum and Rogerson, 2006). Virtues promote positive character although the list may be very long, such virtues include: responsibility, reliability, self-discipline, modesty, courage and integrity (Bynum and Rogerson, 2006; Johnson, 2001). Whereas utilitarian and deontological frameworks are centred on rules to apply, virtue ethics is about building moral character. In this case study McKinnon displays dishonesty by hacking the network without permission. As virtue ethics ignores the special roles of consequences, duties and social contracts (Tavani, 2007 p.65) therefore McKinnon and the US government must be seen as equals. This exposes McKinnon for acting without due consideration of his actions, and perhaps even foolhardiness to continue breaking in without authorization. Perhaps McKinnon could be seen as courageous for hacking such a powerful establishment, yet acknowledging the roles of the two actors (ibid) removes any hierarchy between the two. The case study beings to light accusations that McKinnon left threatening messages on desktops such as: I am SOLO. I will continue to disrupt at the highest levels. Threatening behaviour is not considered virtuous in Aristolean ideas. Presumably when McKinnon downloaded RemotelyAnywhere, there would have been an end user licence that he would have to agree to before he could use the software. This agreement dictates that the software be used for its intended purpose. McKinnon has showed dishonesty by disobeying this and using the software for hacking. Respect and quality is a key thought in virtue ethics (Bynum and Rogerson, 2006). The network administrators in this case study would not have acted responsibly or with integrity as it is alleged that they failed to take basic measures to ensure the network stayed secure. The US military who owns the network and data held on it, although not directly responsible, would not display reliability as they have been hacked at a time when they should have been on high alert. Rights-based Johnson (2001) described that in a rights-based framework the categorical imperative requires that each person be treated as an end in himself or herselfà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (p.47). This statement exemplifies the common parallels between deontological and rights-based ethics. Rights are heavily intertwined with law. For example the Data Protection Act gives individuals the right to know what information is being kept on them. Yet regardless of law, some philosophers argued that all humans possess some natural inherent rights. These rights can be seen as universal or human rights such as the right to life; Spinello (1995) gives the example of how these rights are universal in saying everyone equally shares the right to free speech regardless of nationality or status in society (p.31). Natural or universal rights are derived from the nature of humanity (Baase, 2003). Under rights-based ethics, legal rights come second to natural rights. The values of rights based ethics are similar to the principle for nonmaleficence. Baase (2003) states that, under rights based ethics an act is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦likely to be ethical if they involve voluntary interactions and freely made exchanges, where parties are not coerced or deceived. (p.407). In the case study there is evidence which suggests that the exchange of data was not done voluntarily. Therefore the action of McKinnon cannot be justified on that principle. Natural or human rights are seen as inherent and must be respected; this implies that an individual has the right not to be interfered with (Johnson, 2001). Therefore the right to privacy is not diminished by the poor security displayed within the case study. Although the network administrators did not set passwords, this does not automatically negate the right not to be interfered with. Similarly if someone forgets to lock their car this does not give someone else the right to take the car. Lax security would not matter if the right to privacy was upheld. The distinction between positive and negative rights must be given in applying a rights-based ethical framework to this case study. A negative right will free an actor from outside intervention, whereas a positive right would give the actor whatever is needed to fulfil an interest (Spinello, 1995). Negative rights are much more common than positive rights as it is difficult to draw the line as to where a positive right is limited. Johnson (2001) highlighted that whereas duty-based ethics is largely seen a deontological framework, it may be derived from a utilitarian principles on occasion. From a utilitarian perspective, in search of the greatest happiness, Mill argued that intellectual happiness was greater than sensual (Spinello, 1995). On the basis of this, it can be argued that McKinnon may have been over exerting his right to further educate himself, but intellectual happiness is greater in Mills brand of teleology, so his actions would be justified. Rights-based ethics derived from intent would argue that McKinnon has gone against the legal right prohibiting him from unauthorised access to the network and that he has also gone against the moral right to respect others privacy. From a rights-based ethical framework, moral rights take prescience over other duties or action people might have (Baase, 2003) therefore McKinnons actiosn cannot be justified. Legal Issues In applying ethical frameworks to any case study, personal morals are heavily intertwined. Law often overrides these morals. For example, ownership of what someone creates may be negated to that of the company which that person works for if that is in their terms of employment. Alternatively something which is viewed as ethically acceptable may also be against the law. At the very least, law influences moral judgement. There is much dispute over which country McKinnon should be tried. In analysing legal issues inherent within the case study it is firstly assumed that only UK laws apply to this case. It is apparent within the case study that Gary McKinnon did not have authorization to access the US networks. Immediately this is in violation of the Computer Misuse Act 1990, which states that an offence is committed if: (a) he causes a computer to perform any function with intent to secure access to any program or data held in any computer [or to enable any such access to be secured] ; (b) the access he intends to secure [or to enable to be secured,] is unauthorised; and (c) he knows at the time when he causes the computer to perform the function that that is the case. (Computer Misuse Act 1990, 1990) Clearly McKinnon was in breach of the Computer Misuse Act 1990. The case study acknowledges that McKinnon does not have authorisation and that he intended to access data regarding the existence of UFO technology. The maximum sentence for unauthorised access without intent to commit further offences is 5 years in prison. A more serious offence is committed when unauthorised access is gained à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ with intent to impair, or with recklessness as to impairing, operation of computer, etc (Computer Misuse Act 1990, 1990) this holds a maximum imprisonment of 10 years. It is unknown and very difficult to determine what the intention of Gary McKinnon was; to date there is no evidence to suggest he intended to commit further crimes with the data he accessed. But claimed from his United States prosecutors indicate that he did intent to cause damage as he left a message on machines stating: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I am SOLO. I will continue to disrupt at the highest levels. (Turton, 2009). There are additional legal issues with regards to protecting data held on the network, and the professional requirements expected. It is indicated within the case that no personal information was accessed. This information is given by the US Military, which may be questioned as it would be to their advantage to deny that any personal information was accessed. The Data Protection Act (1998) dictates that the data controller must provide adequate security to protect personal information (Data Protection Act 1998, 1998). Failure to provide adequate security even though an accident is not an excuse as Cambridgeshire County Council most recently found out (du Preez, 2011). A member of staff lost a memory stick by accident; however the memory stick did not have encryption software installed as it should have when it contained sensitive data on it. Similarly the network administrators did not intend for McKinnon to access the network, yet they failed to provide security in the chance of this happening As McKinnon was able to access computer systems easily due to lax security, it is likely that the US and the network administrators would be in breach of this legislation.

The Narrator in Ralph Ellisons Invisible Man Essay examples -- racism

The Narrator in Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man The narrator in Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man views himself as invisible because he believes the world is full of blind men who cannot see him for who is really is. In the beginning of the story, the narrator is treated by white men as the stereotypical black male - sex-hungry, poor and violent. These white men are completely blind to what black men really are. However, as the novel progresses, the narrator finds a way to remain invisible, yet take power from those who previously held it. Later on, we find that the invisible man eventually develops into a man capable of fighting stereotypes and racism in a very visible way. Through this progression, the narrator is able to beat away racist attitudes. In chapter one, we are introduced to the narrator and quickly we see that he is being dominated by white confines of racism and stereotypes. The narrator starts by reminiscing about his class speech during his high school graduation. The speech stressed submission as the way for black Americans to advance in the social structure. The speech was so well received that the town arranged for him to give the speech in front of the town's most influential white leaders. In the narrator's eyes, the white men are rewarding his submissive nature. But the reader is presented with the truth of what is actually going on when he arrives to meet these men. First, the white men bring out a naked blond woman and force the black boys to look at the women. Some become sexually aroused - playing o... ...ible Man. Ellison places himself in the novel because he is showing how a proactive approach can be taken to approach society is a complex individual. By writing this book and tackling complex ideas of racism, he is making a proactive contribution to society. So when the narrator begins to use the dozens and discovers a piece of his cultural heritage, and then he sees in the full light who he really is, he is conveying the idea to anyone reading this book that there is more to African Americans than just violence and slavery. He is forcing others to acknowledge him as well as the existence of other beliefs and behaviors of blacks outside of their prescribed stereotypes. So, we see at the conclusion of this progression that the narrator can emerge from his cloak of invisibility, and make a visible difference in society. The Narrator in Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man Essay examples -- racism The Narrator in Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man The narrator in Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man views himself as invisible because he believes the world is full of blind men who cannot see him for who is really is. In the beginning of the story, the narrator is treated by white men as the stereotypical black male - sex-hungry, poor and violent. These white men are completely blind to what black men really are. However, as the novel progresses, the narrator finds a way to remain invisible, yet take power from those who previously held it. Later on, we find that the invisible man eventually develops into a man capable of fighting stereotypes and racism in a very visible way. Through this progression, the narrator is able to beat away racist attitudes. In chapter one, we are introduced to the narrator and quickly we see that he is being dominated by white confines of racism and stereotypes. The narrator starts by reminiscing about his class speech during his high school graduation. The speech stressed submission as the way for black Americans to advance in the social structure. The speech was so well received that the town arranged for him to give the speech in front of the town's most influential white leaders. In the narrator's eyes, the white men are rewarding his submissive nature. But the reader is presented with the truth of what is actually going on when he arrives to meet these men. First, the white men bring out a naked blond woman and force the black boys to look at the women. Some become sexually aroused - playing o... ...ible Man. Ellison places himself in the novel because he is showing how a proactive approach can be taken to approach society is a complex individual. By writing this book and tackling complex ideas of racism, he is making a proactive contribution to society. So when the narrator begins to use the dozens and discovers a piece of his cultural heritage, and then he sees in the full light who he really is, he is conveying the idea to anyone reading this book that there is more to African Americans than just violence and slavery. He is forcing others to acknowledge him as well as the existence of other beliefs and behaviors of blacks outside of their prescribed stereotypes. So, we see at the conclusion of this progression that the narrator can emerge from his cloak of invisibility, and make a visible difference in society.

Speech on Marijuana Legalization

A well-known issue, right now, in the USA is that of the legalization of marijuana. This controversial topic is on the minds of our entire country. Whether or not to legalize marijuana has been a nation wide debate for years. In this informative speech I will be discussing only facts and opinions. Opinions and facts will come from organizations such as The National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws, Marijuana Legalization Organization and the Drug Policy Alliance. Marijuana Legalization is an issue because there are so many individuals using the substance illegally. These individuals feel that Marijuana is not a harmful substance and can serve to profit states that legalize it. The biggest concern on everyone’s mind is that of health risks. Most people feel that it is in the best interest of the nation for marijuana to remain illegal. Marijuana Legalization Organization states that that is not entirely true. â€Å"Health considerations provide arguments to avoid excessive use of marijuana, but ultimately each individual should be allowed the personal freedom to decide whether or not to use marijuana. (MLO) In their opinion, as with anything taken in excess, marijuana is only harmful to those who choose to use it. The example used in MLO is that of an excess amount of unhealthy food. â€Å"[N]umerous studies have shown that foods with a lot of cholesterol and fat are unhealthy. Should we outlaw bacon? †(MLO) The thought is that instead we need to educate individuals and let people make their own decisions as we do with things like fatty foods, cigarettes and Alcohol. â€Å"A recent survey of research found that long term marijuana use did not have a significant effect on cognitive abilities. The report was published in the July 2003 Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. † This is also stated in the list of facts about marijuana on the Drug Policy Alliance Website. They state that, not only are there no long-term cognitive impairment but, â€Å"[m]arijuana has been proven helpful for treating the symptoms of a variety of medical conditions. † Medical marijuana has proven to be of significant relief for cancer, glaucoma, and aids patients as well as individuals that suffer from neurological disorders. While there are the medical reliefs from the use of Medical marijuana, but DPA also states that the substance has not shown cause of mental illness or to increase risk to cancer. The next claim is that Marijuana is a gateway drug. Webster defines a gateway drug to be â€Å"a drug (as alcohol or marijuana) whose use is thought to lead to the use of and dependence on a harder drug (as cocaine or heroin)†( http://www. merriam-webster. com/) â€Å"Some people claim that using marijuana will make you want to use other drugs, like heroin, cocaine, LSD, amphetamines, and ecstasy. They argue that marijuana acts as a stepping-stone, or a gateway, that leads people to harder drugs. They support their argument with statistics that show that most people who use hard drugs have tried marijuana before. † (MLO) â€Å"There is no conclusive evidence that the effects of marijuana are causally linked to the subsequent use of other illicit drugs. Preliminary animal studies alleging that marijuana â€Å"primed† the brain for other drug-taking behavior have not been replicated, nor are they supported by epidemiological human data. Statistically, for every 104 Americans who have tried marijuana, there is only one regular user of cocaine, and less than one user of heroin. Marijuana is clearly a â€Å"terminus† rather than a gateway for the overwhelming majority of marijuana smokers. † (norml) MLO states â€Å"In essence, the link between marijuana and other illegal drugs stems from the fact that they are illegal. Because they are illegal, marijuana and other drugs are only available on the black market, and anyone who enters the drug market is likely to be exposed to more than one drug. The solution is simple: by legalizing and regulating marijuana sales, we will eliminate the connection to hard drugs. † (MLO) They use Holland as an example. â€Å"In Holland, where politicians decided over 25 years ago to separate marijuana from the illicit drug market by permitting coffee shops all over the country to sell small amounts of marijuana to adults, individuals use marijuana and other drugs at rates less than half of their American counterparts. † (norml. rg) The argument is that, if marijuana were not illegal it would not be a problem. The DPA website states that the majority of the individuals that use marijuana never even use any other illicit drugs. This statement disproves that common misconception about marijuana being a gateway drug. Finally my sources argue that keeping marijuana illegal it is costing more than necessary. MLO claims that â€Å"Cost of keeping marijuana illegal = cost of active law enforcement + cost of prosecution (and defense! of a ccused offenders + cost of incarceration of convicted offenders + hundreds of millions of dollars in tax revenue that would be generated if drugs were legal and taxed + cost of foster care and social services for children of incarcerated offenders. † â€Å"Washington state would save about $105 million a year if marijuana were legally regulated, according to University of Washington Economics professor Dick Startz. † â€Å"The US Federal Government Spends More Than $12 Billion Per Year on Drug Control Programs. Federal drug control budgets do not separate spending by drug, so we there is not a precise figure available for the amount that is spent on marijuana alone. Also, these figures do not include any spending by state or local governments, which are likely to be substantial since state police, courts, and prisons are constantly busy dealing with marijuana offenses. † They also state that â€Å"US Marijuana Crop Estimated to Be Worth Over $35 Billion. A new statistical analysis indicates that marijuana is America's most valuable cash crop. If these figures are even close to the truth, a logical system to regulate and tax marijuana would produce billions of dollars in revenue every year. † According to DPA, the fight that the United States is having against drugs in all is costing $51,000,000,000. They also stated that if California would profit annually an estimated $1,400,000,000 if marijuana were taxed and regulated. There are only two major solutions to this issue; to Legalize or not to legalize that is the question. Legalization could stand to earn the US economic growth but it could also lead to even more people using or abusing the substance. Keeping it illegal could have the government spending money that they don’t necessarily need to spend to regulate the use of this substance or this could be positive a by keeping individuals from abusing it. Only time will tell! Does anyone have any questions?